Encyclopedia of atmospheric sciences 2nd edition download pdf

Kim M. King K. Knox J. Koch B. Liu Y. Liu A. Loeb A. Lamarque J. Lamb J. Lyons P. Mahrt M. Majda C. Molteni F.

Martinson M. McCulloch R. Newman R. Nguyen C. Meng N. Nkemdirim J. North J. Novak D. Quiring J. Ramamurthy T. Palmer A. Parish R. Parks N. Pendleton R. Perlwitz P.

Pfeffer A. Pielke, Sr. Rickman R. Robock R. Rohrer M. Rotach T. Rotunno R. Roulstone H. Slingo C. Salstein A. Smith Atmospheric and Environmental Research, Inc.

Schmidt L. Smith M. David Schultz S. Seinfeld P. Stamnes C. Shaw E. Stein G. Stensrud L. Stolarski K. Sturm J. Turtiainen S. Sullivan T. Varney M. Takle G. Tao W. Taylor G. Taylor A. Tchakerian J. Wahner D. Wakimoto J. Tomas D. Toohey J. Wang M. Wang D. Ward B. Warren E. Waters M. Wayne N. Weart R. Webster S. Young H. Yuter M. Yvon-Lewis C. Zhang D. Zebiak M. A half century ago the American Meteorological Society published the Compendium of Meteorology, which in a single volume of pages summarized the state of understanding of the atmosphere at that time.

A perusal of the contents of that volume indicates that although a broad range of topics was covered, the vast bulk of the volume was devoted to traditional meteorological topics such as atmospheric dynamics, cloud physics, and weather forecasting.

Barely 4 percent of the volume was devoted to articles related to atmospheric chemistry or air pollution and, of course, none of the volume was devoted to techniques such as satellites and remote sensing.

As Sir John Mason aptly notes in his foreword to the present work, the atmospheric sciences have expanded in scope enormously over the past 50 years. Topics such as atmospheric chemistry and global climate change, of only marginal interest 50 years ago, are now central disciplines within the atmospheric sciences. Increasingly, developing areas within the atmospheric sciences require students, teachers, and researchers to familiarize themselves with areas far outside their own specialties.

This work is intended to satisfy the need for a convenient and accessible references source covering all aspects of atmospheric sciences. More than scientists, from academia, government, and industry have contributed to the articles in this work.

We are very grateful to these authors for their success in providing concise and authoritative summaries of complex subjects. We are also grateful to the 31 members of the Editorial Advisory Board who have guided us in our coverage of the very broad range of topics represented in this encyclopedia. The production of this multivolume encyclopedia would not have been possible without the dedicated work of the staff of the Major Reference Works group at Academic Press.

These events have demanded the solici- tation of new and updated articles for the edition. The study of past climates provides new means of testing climate models and theories.

In weather prediction we see new progress on how data are to be better assimilated for much improved initialization of the forecast model leading to the promise of more accurate predictions of severe weather and tropical cyclones over longer lead times. These are just a few of the new features of the second edition.

They set the outline of topics and solicited the original authors, while establishing a high standard for the content of this publication. In many cases we decided to reprint those articles or request only minor updates. We are proud of our product and hope it provides the same assistance to students, researchers, and practitioners throughout the science and engineering communities. After postdoctoral research at the University of Pennsylvania he became a faculty member in physics at the University of MissourieSt.

He shifted his research focus to climate science research during his sabbatical year at the National Center for Atmospheric Research, where he won the Outstanding Paper Award in He has served as editor-in- chief of the Reviews of Geophysics and is recognized as one of the most cited authors in geosciences Web of Science.

He has published about refereed papers not including many book chapters and reviews. John Pyle obtained a BSc in Physics at Durham University before moving to Oxford where he completed a DPhil in Atmospheric Physics, helping to develop a numerical model for stratospheric ozone studies. After a short period at the Rutherford Appleton Laboratory he moved to a lectureship at Cambridge University in In he was appointed professor of atmospheric science and since has been the professor of physical chemistry.

His research focuses on the numerical modelling of atmospheric chemistry. Problems involving the interaction between chemistry and climate have been addressed; these range from stratospheric ozone depletion to the changing tropospheric oxidizing capacity and have included the environ- mental impact of aviation, land use change, biofuel technologies, and the hydrogen economy.

He has studied palaeochemistry problems as well as the projected atmospheric composition changes during the current century. He has published more than peer reviewed papers.

He was awarded the Cambridge ScD degree in His research interests include atmospheric dynamics and predictability, data assimilation, ensemble forecasting, tropical cyclones, gravity waves, mountain plains and sea-breeze circulations, warm-season convection, and regional-scale climate. In , he spent a year and a half as a postdoctoral fellow at the National Center for Atmospheric Research. He has also received numerous awards for his research and service.

Structure of the Encyclopedia ii. To indicate material that broadens and extends the scope of the article The material in the encyclopedia is not arranged by iii.

To indicate material that covers a topic in more ordinary alphabetical order, but by alphabetical order depth according to 49 principal topic areas taken to allow iv. To direct readers to other articles by the same all papers belonging to each principal topic to appear author s together in the same volume.

Within each principal subject, article headings are also arranged alphabeti- Example cally, except where logic dictates otherwise. For example, overview articles appear at the beginning of The following list of cross-references appears at the a section.

Index i. Contents List The index includes page numbers for quick reference to the information you are looking for. It includes both the volume number and the page number of each entry. Cross-references At the start of each volume there is list of the authors who contributed to that volume. All of the entries in the encyclopedia have been cross- referenced. The cross-references, which appear at the end of an article as a See also list, serve four different functions: i.

All rights reserved. Introduction measured. True wind needs to be calculated by vector addition of the independently measured course and speed of a ship, For ships at sea, it has been widespread practice to include a source of additional error variance.

For sail ships, wind information time. The scale was formulated in terms of the effect of was endangered. The appearance of the sea, wind effects on wind on sail ships of a certain type, but was subsequently used rigging, whistling of the wind, and other phenomena may for other sail ships and steamers too.

While Beaufort had board steamers. Observers wind code by the International Meteorological Organization used certain indicators, e. One would need to use indicators of a known drag the Beaufort scale of wind force too. Even then, correction for the rough- initiated early investigations into wind speed equivalents to ness of the underlying terrain and for stability e.

Measured wind speeds presumably could ensure consistent Obviously, anemometer operation on land is a more direct use of Beaufort numbers over land and would help to method to determine wind speed instead of estimation. Also, estimated wind force numbers do not recommended and will not be discussed in the following.

Also, only relative wind speed and direction are equations. Reproduced from World Meteorological Organization, The Beaufort Scale of Wind Force. Reports on Marine Science Affairs No. World Meteorological Organization, Geneva. In retrospect, it appears wise that independent variable is increased by its random errors and the only a coarse scale was devised for a measure of wind force. As resulting regression line has too small a slope. Applying this only a statistical relation can be expected, requirements on such regression to climatological variables e.

We take the Beaufort number as well determined and the meteorological setup of the experiment and in the subse- calculate the mean velocities for each interval of Beaufort quent statistical interpretation. It number; i. We argue that the average wind velocity is well measured ment on a Beaufort equivalent scale more than questions of and the random variations stem from imperfect estimation measurements and exposure.

In this case, the regression of Beaufort force on wind velocity is the given choice. One-Sided Regressions The pitfall is seen in the following: in one-sided regression, Derivations of Beaufort equivalent scales typically use the independent variables are treated as nonrandom and all regression techniques.

For a pair of variables x, y , two variability from both axes is ascribed to the dependent variable. However, there are good arguments to use the second 25 approach, the regression of estimates to measured speeds. Also, the quantization error is larger for estimates due to the larger intervals of the Beaufort scale compared to speeds in meters per second. It is not unreason- able to infer the error of Beaufort number estimation to be 15 much larger than the uncertainty of anemometer measure- ments.

The best relation eration of error variances. Reproduced from Lindau, R. For linear regressions, in the absence of No. It minimizes the orthogonal distances of observed points from the line. This is equivalent to assuming Wind speed measurements at OWSs and Beaufort estimates the error variances to be the same fraction of total variance from passing voluntary observing ships VOSs were used in for each of the variables.

This so-called orthogonal regression several attempts to derive an improved equivalent scale. Some is certainly better than a one-sided regression, when both averaging is needed to reduce errors of measurements in variables are subject to random errors.

However, in a given respective observations and also to account for the natural case, the fraction of error in the total variance of each vari- variability that enters because VOSs pass OWSs at some able need not be the same and an improved technique is distance. Lindau developed a sophisticated method to determine For illustration, consider the observations at the Ocean effective variances.

The two one-sided VOSs, differences were obtained and variances calculated as regression lines and the orthogonal regression line are plotted a function of distance between the ships.

Using the same technique on pairs of OWSs and vicinity. This variability could be reduced by averaging in time for OWSs and implies that the uncertainty of Beaufort estimates is a larger space for VOSs. A suitable area around an OWS was selected to fraction of the total variance than that of anemometer contain the same variance in space from VOS than at the OWS measurement.

This radius and the appropriate number of The orthogonal regression yields a better Beaufort equiv- VOS observations were determined separately for each OWS alent scale than any of the one-sided regressions — in the and each season.

The reason for this is seen in regression yields the correct relation. Anemometer heights at weather ships are regression too. The last line gives the reduction factor to compare equivalent scales for reference heights of 25 and 10 m, derived for the ensemble of measurements at North Atlantic OWSs.

The Beaufort scale of wind force. Climate Atlas of the Atlantic Ocean. Springer Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg. A new Beaufort equivalent scale. Berichte aus dem Institut fur Meereskunde, Kiel, No. The development of a new Beaufort equivalent scale.

Meteorologische Rundschau 34, 17— The resulting equivalent code was introduced in by WMO, supposedly scale is thus applicable to 10 m height. The results are given in applicable to 10 m height.

Both versions of code were Table 2 and depicted in Figure 2. However, equivalent scales give wind speeds. He could also Code in use from to was believed to show that for the WMO code of a reference height of refer to 6 m height.

Since the required standard height of 10 m is reasonable. One can hope that the exposure of instruments at OWSs and the mode of ship oper- ation at the station will make this an acceptable error.

However, slightly unstable conditions prevail at Kaufeld most parts of the oceans, approaching near-neutral conditions 25 Lindau 25 m at higher wind speeds.

Especially within the wave modeling community, still in the opinion pre- vailed that the WMO Beaufort equivalent scale code is 5 in error. Regrettably, in the Beaufort new derivations the variable with small error variances was Figure 2 Different Beaufort equivalent scales: code 10 m refer- regressed on a variable with obviously much larger error vari- ence height , crosses; CMM-IV 25 m height , circles; Kaufeld 25 m ances, leading to biased scales.

They give biased climatological means. The use differences for reference. Seen in the light of anemometers; a true secular trend could not be isolated. Lindau devel- The regression technique of cumulated frequencies applied oped a statistical method to derive wind velocities relative to by Lindau had been used by Kaufeld before him. It has the pressure gradients. He used simultaneous wind vectors and advantage to account for nonuniform distribution of observa- pressure differences from pairs of ships within reasonable tions at the tails of the frequency distribution.

This technique distance. From the uncorrected concluded that the Beaufort equivalent scale of Lindau is to be data, one would identify long-term trends of different sign preferred when creating a homogeneous monthly mean wind before and after World War II, while corrected for drift of scale data set from anemometer and visual winds in Comprehensive the apparent increase of wind speed after disappears Ocean Atmosphere Data Set COADS.

Figure 4. Considering the full time range from to ,. There have been changes in coding practices too. Originally, Beaufort forces were used in trans- Vg m s 1. The latter is most embarrassing, since no dependent calibration of Beaufort estimates, based on pressure differ- single reason and simple cure can be given. Pressure differences are shown as a function of On the other hand, a trend toward higher wind speeds wind direction relative to the direction of paired observations.

The dashed could well be an indication of climate change. Growing line is obtained considering the error variance of wind direction. At — Time dependent calibration the oceans, surplus energy can fuel atmospheric circulations, of marine Beaufort estimates using individual pressure differences.

In: e. Wind anomaly m s 1 1. Upper panel uncorrected; lower panel corrected with reference to pressure gradients. Unresolved Issues Further Reading The low and high velocity ends of the Beaufort scale are less well determined. This is not important for the low wind speeds. Cardone, V. On trends in historical marine wind data. For the high wind speeds, obviously too few observations are Journal of Climate 3, — Cheng, C. Statistical Regression with Measurement Error.

In typical listings, Arnold, London, UK. Beaufort number 12 is usually taken as unlimited, i. Marine Meteorology and Related Oceanographic with no equivalent speed assigned. World Meteorological Organisation, Geneva. Journal observations for the description of storminess in air—sea of Climate 4, — This method could be used to establish Kent, E.

Choice of a Beaufort equivalent scale. Journal of Atmo- a mean equivalent velocity for Beaufort 12, under the premise spheric and Oceanic Technology 14, — Kinsman, B. Historical notes on the original Beaufort scale.

Marine Observer 39, — Beaufort equivalent scales have been determined mainly Lindau, R. Time dependent calibration of marine Beaufort estimates using from observations at the North Atlantic but accepted by WMO individual pressure differences. In: Diaz, H. Noting differences in time as well as in national Lindau, R. Rapport on Beaufort Equivalent Scales. Advances in the Applications consistency at other oceans too.

Petersen, P. Annalen der Hydro- Collecting marine surface observations has been a habit of graphie 55, 69— In the beginning, national services collected Peterson, E. Did the Beaufort-scale or the wind climate change?

Later, data were transferred to punched cards and Journal of Physical Oceanography 17, — Woodruff, S. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 23, — World Meteorological Organization, hoped that the methods available now will be adopted by the Geneva.

Wind Chill is the name given to the effect of increased heat loss from the skin exposed to cold, windy weather. The chart is provided in both Fahrenheit and Celsius units. Introduction chart, established in November , includes warnings of a risk of frostbite based on time of exposure. All bodies exposed to colder air will lose heat because of the Numerous researchers had been critical of the original chart, temperature difference between their skin and the air. The rate which was developed from research done by Siple and Passel in of heat loss in still air is a function of that difference as well as Antarctica during the s and was in use by the NWS from the amount of exposed area of the body, the conditions at the to The basis for the new These are well-known principles of the branch of science and chart will be described.

Many physical factors may also play a part in an surface, the rate of heat loss increases. This increase in heat loss rate in the air, and the presence of ground structures that modify affects humans exposed to cold, windy weather and has the wind.

The human body feels colder, particularly at the unclothed areas of skin, when there is wind than when there is no appreciable wind at the same tempera- Origin of the Wind Chill Temperature Calculation ture. Accelerated heat loss rates can lead to frostbite if the skin remains exposed long enough. The cylinder was made of cellulose be used in weather forecasting and reporting. A number of such acetate with dimensions The heat loss rate per unit area of 0.

A therm ohm, a device that measures temperature exposed skin was utilized in Canada until recently. A proposal via electrical resistance, was immersed in the water and the to report the skin temperature has been presented by cylinder was sealed. There is no clear border between the atmosphere and outer space. The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by creating pressure allowing for liquid water to exist on the Earth s surface, absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation, warming the surface through heat retention greenhouse effect , and reducing temperature Encyclopedia of Atmospheric Sciences, 6 Volume Set 2nd Learn how to download the Knovel Mobile app for offline content access.

Knovel Search Widget. Add a Knovel search bar to your internal resource page. Knovel Integrations. Learn about Knovel workflow integrations with engineering software and information discovery platforms. The alarming consequences of global climate change have highlighted the need to take urgent steps to combat the causes of air pollution. Hence, understanding the Earth's atmosphere is a vital component in Man's emerging quest for developing sustainable modes of behaviour in the 21st century.

Written by a team of expert scientists, the Handbook of Atmospheric Science provides a broad and up-to-date account of our understanding of the natural processes that occur within the atmosphere. The book progresses through chapters covering the principles of atmospheric science and the current problems of air pollution at the urban, regional and global scales, to the tools and applications used to understand air pollution.

The Handbook of Atmospheric Science offers an excellent overview of this multi-disciplinary subject and will prove invaluable to both students and researchers of atmospheric science, air pollution and global change. Strategic Guidance for the National Science Foundation's Support of the Atmospheric Sciences provides guidance to ATM on its strategy for achieving its goals in the atmospheric sciences, including cutting-edge research, education and workforce development, service to society, computational and observational objectives, and data management.

The report reviews how the atmospheric sciences have evolved over the past several decades and analyzes the strengths and limitations of the various modes of support employed by ATM. It concludes that ATM is operating in an environment that is ever more cross-disciplinary, interagency, and international, making a more strategic approach necessary to manage activities in a way that actively engages the atmospheric sciences community.

At the same time, ATM should preserve opportunities for basic research, especially projects that are high risk, potentially transformative, or unlikely to be supported by other government agencies. Finally, ATM needs to be more proactive in attracting highly talented students to the atmospheric sciences as an investment in the ability to make future breakthroughs.

Technology has propelled the atmospheric sciences from a fledgling discipline to a global enterprise. Findings in this field shape a broad spectrum of decisions--what to wear outdoors, whether aircraft should fly, how to deal with the issue of climate change, and more.

This book presents a comprehensive assessment of the atmospheric sciences and offers a vision for the future and a range of recommendations for federal authorities, the scientific community, and education administrators. How does atmospheric science contribute to national well-being?

In the context of this question, the panel identifies imperatives in scientific observation, recommends directions for modeling and forecasting research, and examines management issues, including the growing problem of weather data availability.

Five subdisciplines--physics, chemistry, dynamics and weather forecasting, upper atmosphere and near-earth space physics, climate and climate change--and their status as the science enters the twenty-first century are examined in detail, including recommendations for research. This readable book will be of interest to public-sector policy framers and private-sector decisionmakers as well as researchers, educators, and students in the atmospheric sciences.

It is written at a level that allows undergraduate students to understand the material, while providing active researchers with the latest information in the field. Covers all aspects of atmospheric sciences—including both theory and applications Presents more than articles and more than 1, figures and photographs Broad-ranging articles include topics such as atmospheric chemistry, biogeochemical cycles, boundary layers, clouds, general circulation, global change, mesoscale meteorology, ozone, radar, satellite remote sensing, and weather prediction An ideal resource for academia, government, and industry in the fields of atmospheric, ocean, and environmental sciences.